Speaker 1: Happy Saturday, everybody. This classic is coming out during Deaf
Speaker 1: History Month, which goes from March thirteenth to April fifteenth
Speaker 1: each year. It's first Today commemorates the successful conclusion of
Speaker 1: the Deaf President Now Protests, which we covered in a
Speaker 1: previous episode of the show that has also been a
Speaker 1: previous Saturday Classic, and then the last day of Deaf
Speaker 1: History Month marks the establishment of the American School for
Speaker 1: the Deaf, which was the first permanent school for the
Speaker 1: deaf in the United States. So today we're sharing one
Speaker 1: of our earlier episodes related to Deaf History, which is
Speaker 1: on Laura Bridgeman. She was the first deaf blind person
Speaker 1: in the US to receive a formal education, and she
Speaker 1: also came up on our recent Saturday Classic on Charles Dickens.
Speaker 1: In this episode, Sarah and Bablina talk about potential future
Speaker 1: episodes on Helen Keller and Louis Brail, both of whom
Speaker 1: are still on our ongoing list of topics. So enjoy.
Speaker 1: Welcome to Stuff You Missed in History Class, a production
Speaker 1: of I Heart Radios How Stuff Works. Hello, and welcome
Speaker 1: to the podcast. I'm Sarah Dowdy and I'm Delinea chalk reboarding,
Speaker 1: and earlier this year, some interesting news came out of
Speaker 1: Georgia Tech here in Atlanta. Researchers there announced that they'd
Speaker 1: come up with a texting app called Brail Touch, which
Speaker 1: applies computer brail, you know, a specific type of brail,
Speaker 1: to touch screen devices. And the app has mostly been
Speaker 1: in the news because it has potential as a general
Speaker 1: eyes free texting app, even for people who aren't visually impaired,
Speaker 1: you could text under the table or something. But for
Speaker 1: folks who are visually impaired, a brail app could really
Speaker 1: mean a lot less stuff to lug around, no keyboard,
Speaker 1: just a phone, and easier communication. And it really got
Speaker 1: me thinking about how much communication has improved for people
Speaker 1: with visual disabilities in the past century. On today, we're
Speaker 1: going to revisit a subject that we touched on briefly
Speaker 1: in our Dickens Visits America episode, and it's kind of
Speaker 1: related to that topic of communication. It's about Laura Bridgeman,
Speaker 1: who was the first deaf blind person to learn language
Speaker 1: also to communicate with letters and writing and to be educated.
Speaker 1: And she didn't use the now ubiquitous brail system that
Speaker 1: we just talked about, which was only beginning at the time,
Speaker 1: but instead she used the manual alphabet to spell out words,
Speaker 1: and she also read from raised Roman text and I
Speaker 1: learned to hand right with a special grid system. So
Speaker 1: Bridgeman was about fifty years older than the more famous
Speaker 1: Helen Keller. But if you remember from that earlier episode,
Speaker 1: their stories are really closely connected, aside from the fact
Speaker 1: that young Helen Keller annoyed Bridgeman by stepping on her
Speaker 1: foot when the two of them metum. But while Keller
Speaker 1: really became a champion of disability rights and an international figure,
Speaker 1: you know, somebody who's internationally famous, Bridgeman was on the
Speaker 1: earlier end of the disability right story. And in fact,
Speaker 1: when she started school in the eighteen thirties, people were
Speaker 1: just starting to believe blind people could be educated. So
Speaker 1: the idea of educating a deaf, blind person, this deaf
Speaker 1: blind girl, seemed completely impossible. Yeah, so we're going to
Speaker 1: tell you a little bit about her early story and
Speaker 1: the challenges that she had to face before we get
Speaker 1: to that story of her learning. Laura Dewey Bridgeman was
Speaker 1: born December twenty one, eighty nine, near Hanover, New Hampshire.
Speaker 1: Her parents Daniel and Harmony had a farm, and Laura
Speaker 1: was their third daughter. She was a pretty baby with
Speaker 1: bright blue eyes, but she was really sickly. At twenty
Speaker 1: months she finally started getting bigger and lively. She was
Speaker 1: chatty and seemed very smart. But at twenty four months
Speaker 1: she and her two older sisters came down with scarlet fever.
Speaker 1: Her two sisters died, but for Laura the fever went
Speaker 1: on four weeks after that, and when she finally started
Speaker 1: to get better, she was blind in one eye, nearly blind,
Speaker 1: and the other death and she had very little of
Speaker 1: her senses of smell and taste left. Her vision in
Speaker 1: her non blind eye was destroyed when she walked into
Speaker 1: the spindle of her mother's spinning wheel. So a really
Speaker 1: sad start here, But remarkably, by age four, she had
Speaker 1: recovered the strength she had lost during the fever. She
Speaker 1: was strong again, and while she wasn't talking anymore, she
Speaker 1: was still very smart. She was still displaying that interest
Speaker 1: she had as a two year old in everything she
Speaker 1: came across. She would touch everything she encountered. She had
Speaker 1: cling to her mother and feel her arms in her
Speaker 1: hands and try to mimic her mother's hands, so she
Speaker 1: learned how to help out with housework that way. She
Speaker 1: even learned how to knit and too so and from
Speaker 1: a workman on her family farm, Asa Tenney, who himself
Speaker 1: had some impairments that made speech difficult for him, she
Speaker 1: did pick up some ability to communicate, or at least
Speaker 1: communicate more fully with her family. She had a way
Speaker 1: of sort of understanding what she was going through and
Speaker 1: helped her perfect this basic sort of sign language. And
Speaker 1: so each family member had a name sign that they
Speaker 1: could respond to, and a pat on her head meant
Speaker 1: yes or okay, a pat on her back meant no.
Speaker 1: She had a way of expressing really basic needs at least.
Speaker 1: But by age seven she started throwing these really violent
Speaker 1: temper tantrums. She'd only obey her father, who would stomp
Speaker 1: on the ground when he was upset with her. And
Speaker 1: she'd reached the limit of communication basically with her family,
Speaker 1: and she was just overwhelmed and they were overwhelmed too.
Speaker 1: They were busy farmers, and they didn't know what they
Speaker 1: were going to do to help her. So fortunately at
Speaker 1: that time an article was written by a Dartmouth professor
Speaker 1: on Laura's ability to sign, and that got the attention
Speaker 1: of Samuel Gridley how And a few years earlier, actually
Speaker 1: the very same year Laura was born, how had founded Perkins,
Speaker 1: which was a school for the blind, and it had
Speaker 1: opened for students in eighteen thirty two with a mission um,
Speaker 1: not just to educate blind children, that's kind of how
Speaker 1: you'd see it today, but to really prove that blind
Speaker 1: children could be educated and could become independent adults. Kids
Speaker 1: at the school learned everything from history to philosophy, plus sports,
Speaker 1: music including piano tuning, and domestic work. So it was
Speaker 1: really a very broad education getting them ready for life.
Speaker 1: How's quite a character himself, we should mention. He idolized
Speaker 1: Lord Byron and fought in the Greek Revolution where Byron died.
Speaker 1: He financially supported radical abolitionist John Brown, and he was
Speaker 1: married to Julia Ward, who wrote The Battle Him of
Speaker 1: the Republic. But he was also a proponent of education reform,
Speaker 1: and not just for blind students. He wanted wrote memorization
Speaker 1: replaced with a curriculum following the child's interests. He disliked
Speaker 1: John Locke's idea of the tabula raza the blank slate,
Speaker 1: and instead thought that the mind came with certain innate
Speaker 1: for sility, something in line with the pseudoscience of phrenology. Yeah,
Speaker 1: so when How heard about Laura, he realized that she
Speaker 1: would really be his perfect subject. She was an opportunity
Speaker 1: for him to do good. Clearly, he was very interested
Speaker 1: in that. She was excellent pr for his school, and
Speaker 1: she'd be a way for him to test his theories
Speaker 1: on the mind and probably most importantly, a challenge for him.
Speaker 1: At this point, he was doing so successfully with his school.
Speaker 1: He wanted a challenge. So Laura's parents met with How
Speaker 1: and they agreed to send her to Perkins and Laura
Speaker 1: arrived there in October eighty seven, when she was just
Speaker 1: shy of eight years old. She just got a little
Speaker 1: bit of time to settle into her new surroundings. She
Speaker 1: was obviously very scared, very disoriented, but How gave her
Speaker 1: two weeks to get used to the new world. So
Speaker 1: after that onerous two week period that she got he
Speaker 1: started to teach her. He quickly decided to scrap the
Speaker 1: basic sign language that she'd been using at home and
Speaker 1: instead teach her English. So here's kind of how it worked.
Speaker 1: He would give her something basic like a key or
Speaker 1: a fork or a knife that was labeled with embossed writing,
Speaker 1: and then after she familiarized herself with the objects, he'd
Speaker 1: separate the object from that label and she would have
Speaker 1: to match them to each other. Yeah, and he wrote
Speaker 1: of this time quote, it was as though she were
Speaker 1: underwater and we were on the surface over her, unable
Speaker 1: to see her, but dropping a line and moving it
Speaker 1: about here and there, hoping it might touch her hand
Speaker 1: so that she would grasp it instinctively, hoping that she
Speaker 1: would put two and two together and realize it wasn't
Speaker 1: just a matching game. These labels actually signified something about
Speaker 1: the objects that they went with. But according to Jane
Speaker 1: seymour Ford and Perkins, help leaved that her ability to
Speaker 1: match really was just kind of a game. It was
Speaker 1: just memorization. At this point, she liked getting approval, so
Speaker 1: she knew the knife label went with the knife, and
Speaker 1: and so on. So the next step for him was
Speaker 1: to cut up the labels into their separate letters, and
Speaker 1: he would spell out the word that she was familiar with,
Speaker 1: and he'd jumble them up, and then he would leave
Speaker 1: Laura to figure out how to piece them back together
Speaker 1: again into something she was familiar with. And he describes
Speaker 1: the aha sort of moment when she finally got this
Speaker 1: that letters made up words, and words signified things, and
Speaker 1: he wrote quote, the truth began to flash upon her.
Speaker 1: Her intellect began to work. She perceived that here was
Speaker 1: a way by which she could herself make a sign
Speaker 1: of anything that was in her own mind and show
Speaker 1: it to another mind. And at once her countenance lighted up.
Speaker 1: So from there Laura tried to learn the name of
Speaker 1: every single thing that she encountered. Communication got faster when
Speaker 1: she learned them manual alphabet and could put aside those
Speaker 1: embossed letters that she had initially learned with. She only
Speaker 1: needed about a year of instruction and vocabulary building before
Speaker 1: she could join in the regular classes for the blind,
Speaker 1: and she would have a personal teacher with her who
Speaker 1: was fingerspelling everything out for her so that she could
Speaker 1: follow along in class. But other than that, just following
Speaker 1: along with the lessons pretty remarkable. One thing to mention here, though,
Speaker 1: how promoted Laura's ability? That ah sort of moment? He
Speaker 1: he promoted that is something innate, like she just had
Speaker 1: the capacity for language. There but two of her recent biographers,
Speaker 1: Elizabeth Jeter and Ernest Freeberg, suggests that she probably did
Speaker 1: have some distant memory of spoken language before she was deaf.
Speaker 1: Even if she might not have remembered being two years old,
Speaker 1: she probably had something left in her head. And Jeter
Speaker 1: also thinks that she had likely been imprinted with the
Speaker 1: capacity for grammar, since her later ability to understand all
Speaker 1: these different complex tenses um kind of put her apart
Speaker 1: from a lot of their deafline people who've learned language,
Speaker 1: which to me just sounds like another way of saying inadability.
Speaker 1: So maybe so we should also point out that while
Speaker 1: Braill was by this point being used in some parts
Speaker 1: of the world, Laura and the other students that Perkins
Speaker 1: read with raised Roman letters, which was known as Boston
Speaker 1: line type, and it made for some really huge book
Speaker 1: because they had to blow up the letters so big
Speaker 1: that you could actually feel the differences between them. And
Speaker 1: Laura would write with a grooved guide that was slid
Speaker 1: under her paper, so you'd write a letter in one
Speaker 1: of the grooves, cover it and then move on to
Speaker 1: the next letter. And it was called square handwriting because
Speaker 1: it has this very strange sort of square look to it.
Speaker 1: You can, um, you can see letters that Laura herself wrote,
Speaker 1: and it is a very unusual looking hand, but pretty remarkable.
Speaker 1: It sounds really time consuming, it does, but apparently she
Speaker 1: was a voracious letter writer, so she must have gotten
Speaker 1: pretty fast at it. While she studied reading writing in
Speaker 1: geography and algebra and geometry and all the their subjects
Speaker 1: in the classroom, she would pepper her teachers with questions
Speaker 1: at the same time outside of the classroom, things like
Speaker 1: why don't flies have names? Why can't we sail to
Speaker 1: the sun and boats? If I eat fish hooks, could
Speaker 1: I be dead? Questions? Yes, And she flourished socially too.
Speaker 1: She could recognize people that she hadn't seen in a
Speaker 1: long time by feeling their faces. She made distinct noises
Speaker 1: for friends, which were kind of like individual names that
Speaker 1: people could recognize other people. And how describes this sort
Speaker 1: of girlish social butterfly behavior that Laura had um in
Speaker 1: a passage I really liked, he said, quote When Laura
Speaker 1: is walking through a passageway with her hands spread before her,
Speaker 1: she notes instantly everyone she meets and passes them with
Speaker 1: a sign of recognition. But if it be a girl
Speaker 1: of her own age, and especially if one of her favorites,
Speaker 1: there is instantly, a bright smile of recognition and intertwining
Speaker 1: of arms, a grasping of hands, and a swift telegraphing
Speaker 1: upon the tiny finger. So I think that really conveys
Speaker 1: how happy she was to finally be able to communicate
Speaker 1: with people and say what was on her mind and
Speaker 1: hear what was going on in the world. And um,
Speaker 1: she'd joke around too. That's another important thing to mention,
Speaker 1: because she does have a reputation being older as kind
Speaker 1: of severe. But as a kid, she'd joke her on.
Speaker 1: She'd purposely misspell words and then strike it out with
Speaker 1: the other hand, or she would spell with her nose
Speaker 1: when finger spelling instead of her fingers. Um, she'd spin
Speaker 1: donuts on her finger, something that she actually did her
Speaker 1: her whole life. And when she was alone too, she
Speaker 1: could entertain herself. She liked to always be able to
Speaker 1: ask people questions, but she could entertain herself. She kept
Speaker 1: a journal her whole life. She would practice new words,
Speaker 1: spelling out the names of new words. She would carry
Speaker 1: out these sort of private dialogues, and she would knit
Speaker 1: and so and had a very strong sense of fashion.
Speaker 1: She was always very neatly dressed, very stylish, she'd so
Speaker 1: all her own clothes and had some things that almost
Speaker 1: sound like amazing party tricks too. She could thread a
Speaker 1: needle with her tongue. Um, just really cool talents that
Speaker 1: kind of get overshadowed by some of the other abilities,
Speaker 1: but just these everyday things she was also able to
Speaker 1: do an addition to reading and writing. But even in
Speaker 1: spite of these more entertaining aspects of her personality and
Speaker 1: that sense of humor that she had, Laura would also
Speaker 1: still sometimes throw tantrums. And this was something that how
Speaker 1: of course, didn't cover much in that pr campaign that
Speaker 1: made Laura so famous. She had hit students, sometimes shoved teachers.
Speaker 1: She would get very upset with slow finger spellers too,
Speaker 1: And since she'd work so closely with her teachers, sometimes
Speaker 1: spending twenty four hours a day with them, she had
Speaker 1: also formed these really deep attachments and really truly suffer
Speaker 1: when changes happened. In her time at Perkins. As a student,
Speaker 1: she had four main teachers, Lydia Drew Morton, Eliza Rodgers,
Speaker 1: Mary Swift Lambsome, and Sarah White Bond, and she stayed
Speaker 1: lifelong friends with all of them. But when they leave
Speaker 1: Perkins to marry or to get new jobs, she would
Speaker 1: beg to go with them, and when she would get upset,
Speaker 1: when things like this would happen, she wouldn't be able
Speaker 1: to eat. And one of those really traumatic transitions came
Speaker 1: when How himself mary Julia Ward in eighteen forty three.
Speaker 1: Laura had of course been How's pet project. He promoted
Speaker 1: her in medical journals, periodicals, children's magazines enough to make
Speaker 1: them both internationally famous. People from around the world would
Speaker 1: come to see her, sometimes just visiting but sometimes just
Speaker 1: watching her behind partitions which ray, it reminded me a
Speaker 1: little of some of the Barnum episodes we've been talking about,
Speaker 1: which this is around the same time, and um, I
Speaker 1: don't know, it's it's a more disturbing side of the story. Yeah,
Speaker 1: And another kind of disturbing aspect of this. According to
Speaker 1: Louis Menand in The New Yorker, she was so well
Speaker 1: known little girls would poke out their dolls eyes and
Speaker 1: named them Laura. A very special kind of fame there, Yes,
Speaker 1: but Laura also had kind of become How's adopted daughter
Speaker 1: by this point. According to seymour Ford at Perkins, she
Speaker 1: even lived in his apartment with him and his sisters.
Speaker 1: So they were really very close. So Laura was really
Speaker 1: feeling kind of abandoned when How married and spent a
Speaker 1: year and a half after that on a working honeymoon
Speaker 1: in Europe. She wrote to him constantly and often asked
Speaker 1: questions about one subject that she was particularly interested in
Speaker 1: learning more about, and that was religion. So How had
Speaker 1: always planned to include religion in his process of educating Laura,
Speaker 1: but he had kind of strange ideas about it. You
Speaker 1: normally think of a religious education starting as young as possible,
Speaker 1: but he didn't think she should have any kind of
Speaker 1: religious instruction until her mid teens, after her physical and
Speaker 1: intellectual educations were complete, at least to his idea, So
Speaker 1: he hoped that just as she had shown people possessed
Speaker 1: some sort of natural, innate understanding of language, or at
Speaker 1: least he believed that she would also eventually show that
Speaker 1: people possessed an innate understanding and love of God. That
Speaker 1: was his hope. So his plan when he came back
Speaker 1: from his honeymoon was to present her. You know, he
Speaker 1: had a plan just like his labeling system. He would
Speaker 1: present her with these everyday miracles instead of everyday items
Speaker 1: like forks and knives, in this case, it would be
Speaker 1: something like plants growing from seeds, and he expected that
Speaker 1: if she was presented with enough of these, ultimately she'd realize,
Speaker 1: just as she'd realize those significance of those embossed letters,
Speaker 1: that there was something divine about these things, something divine
Speaker 1: about the whole process. And also, according to Menan, he
Speaker 1: hoped that these innate inclinations and understandings of hers would
Speaker 1: match up with his own Unitarian beliefs rather than more
Speaker 1: serious evangelical beliefs. So to make sure that this plan
Speaker 1: of education worked, he knew that she needed to have
Speaker 1: no sort of religious instruction beforehand, so he banned her
Speaker 1: teachers from discussing religion while he was gone, from answering
Speaker 1: any kind of questions, and while she was writing him
Speaker 1: about religion, he himself didn't really answer questions in the letters,
Speaker 1: so she was left pretty frustrated and wondering what was
Speaker 1: going on. Yeah, knowing curious Laura by this point, you
Speaker 1: can probably guess what happened. She managed to get something
Speaker 1: out of her teacher, Mary Swift, and she was also
Speaker 1: secretly visited by a group of evangelicals who were protesting
Speaker 1: How's methods. She was attracted to what they told her,
Speaker 1: and evangelical religion became a major part of her life
Speaker 1: from then on. When How finally came back, he was
Speaker 1: disappointed that his plan had been wrecked, and he kind
Speaker 1: of wrote the whole thing off as a failure, not
Speaker 1: just the religious education but educating Laura. Almost Yeah, he
Speaker 1: became more distant from or after this, and according to
Speaker 1: menand he even said that her religious education was the
Speaker 1: greatest disappointment of his life, and it caused him to
Speaker 1: take back some of the praise he had for the
Speaker 1: blind in general. So he took a very extreme took
Speaker 1: it pretty hard this definitely. But when Laura was about
Speaker 1: twenty years old, her last and favorite teacher, Sarah White,
Speaker 1: left to be married, and at this point, especially considering
Speaker 1: that she and How had drifted apart by this point,
Speaker 1: a little bit um school was going to be over
Speaker 1: for Laura. So she stayed on at Perkins for a time,
Speaker 1: but she really found life a lot lonelier and isolated
Speaker 1: without having a constant companion with her anymore. So it
Speaker 1: was thought best by everyone that she'd go home to
Speaker 1: her family farm, but that didn't really work out either.
Speaker 1: The family was too busy running the farm, doing their
Speaker 1: everyday things that they did, and Um, they didn't have
Speaker 1: time for the twenty four hour companionship and the constant
Speaker 1: questions that she was used to, and so she started
Speaker 1: to get depressed, she started to get sick, and how
Speaker 1: eventually got worried enough to loop in Dorothea Dix, who
Speaker 1: we've talked about on an earlier podcast, UM, who was
Speaker 1: also a friend of Laura's, to help raise the money
Speaker 1: for a lifetime endowment for her to live at Perkins
Speaker 1: as long as she wanted to, and she ended up
Speaker 1: staying there for the rest of her life, returning to
Speaker 1: her family farm only for summers. As an adult. At
Speaker 1: the school, she lived in a cottage and she taught needlework.
Speaker 1: Apparently she was a really strict teacher too. I think
Speaker 1: we mentioned that before. If you if you didn't have
Speaker 1: neat stitches, she'd just make you rip the whole thing
Speaker 1: out and start over. That's tough. But she'd also read
Speaker 1: a lot. She'd write letters constantly, she'd travel occasionally to
Speaker 1: she'd knit, she'd embroider, she'd make lace and so things
Speaker 1: to sell to people who came to see her. Often
Speaker 1: she would include an attached autograph with that, and she
Speaker 1: liked having money of her own. She liked having some
Speaker 1: money to give to charity and buy presents for her
Speaker 1: friends while she was home. One summer, she was baptized
Speaker 1: in a brook near the family farm, and she also
Speaker 1: convinced the pastor's wife to learn the manual alphabet so
Speaker 1: that they could communicate and that way Laura could get
Speaker 1: more religious instruction. And we mentioned this a little bit
Speaker 1: when talking about her her sense of humor, but too strangers.
Speaker 1: She did seem less friendly and less pleasant as she
Speaker 1: grew older, but perhaps that's in part due to all
Speaker 1: her losses. She got very close to her younger sister
Speaker 1: on these trips back to the farm um and her
Speaker 1: sister passed away, how died in eighteen seventy six, and
Speaker 1: just within a year or so after that, two of
Speaker 1: her teachers died. So at age fifty nine, Laura got
Speaker 1: sick with aery sypolis, which is a streptococcus infection, and
Speaker 1: died May nine. The last word that she spelled out
Speaker 1: was a mother. A year before she died, though, Laura
Speaker 1: did meet Helen Keller, and as we mentioned, the eight
Speaker 1: year old annoyed Laura by stepping on her foot. So
Speaker 1: bad first impression. But Keller's parents, who were dealing with
Speaker 1: the same tantrums that Laura's family had dealt with years earlier,
Speaker 1: happened to read Dickens forty two American Travels, where, if
Speaker 1: you'll remember from the Dickens podcast, he wrote at length
Speaker 1: about the then sensational twelve year old Laura who was
Speaker 1: imprisoned in a quote more marble Cell. He was very
Speaker 1: poetic in his descriptions of her, and the promise of
Speaker 1: Laura's story made Keller's parents contact Perkins, where they were
Speaker 1: connected with recent grad and Sullivan a good friend of
Speaker 1: Laura's and someone who was familiar with How's method of instruction.
Speaker 1: So the famous ah ha moment in Keller's story came
Speaker 1: when Sullivan spelled out water on Keller's hand while running
Speaker 1: water over the other. It's a very famous scene that
Speaker 1: I think we all probably learned to grade school yet exactly,
Speaker 1: and Keller is so I guess I should say Bridgeman
Speaker 1: is so closely connected with Keller because of that link
Speaker 1: in her parents and Dickens and all of that. But
Speaker 1: Keller did all is acknowledge Bridgeman's earlier education and its
Speaker 1: effect on her own life. But Laurie's stories may be
Speaker 1: best summed up with something that she said as a child,
Speaker 1: when her teacher was explaining to her that while most
Speaker 1: people had five senses, she just had three senses. And
Speaker 1: according to Krista De Luzio in American nineteenth Century History,
Speaker 1: Laura thought about this for a moment, and then she
Speaker 1: answered her teacher that no, she actually had one more
Speaker 1: sense than that. She had the sense of touch, She
Speaker 1: had taste, smell, and then a fourth sense, which she
Speaker 1: called think. And I mean that, how does that not
Speaker 1: just sum up everything she learned and did? That You
Speaker 1: can think, but if you have the ability to express it,
Speaker 1: you can live a full life. Thank you so much
Speaker 1: for joining us on this Saturday. If you have heard
Speaker 1: an email address or a Facebook you are l or
Speaker 1: something similar over the course of today's episode, Since it
Speaker 1: is from the archive that might be out of date now,
Speaker 1: you can email us at History Podcast at how Stuff
Speaker 1: Works dot com, and you can find us all over
Speaker 1: social media at missed in History. And you can subscribe
Speaker 1: to our show on Apple Podcasts, Google podcast, the I
Speaker 1: Heart Radio app, and wherever else. You listen to podcasts.
Speaker 1: Stuff You Missed in History Class is a production of
Speaker 1: I heart Radio's How Stuff Works. For more podcasts for
Speaker 1: my heart Radio, visit the i heart radio app, Apple Podcasts,
Speaker 1: or wherever you listen to your favorite shows.